Infant and Toddler Communication:

When it Works and When it Doesn't
By Carol Bunse, Kathleen Stremel, and Carol Greer

The incidence of communication and language delays in young children is increasing (Rosetti, l996). Although often not identified until a child is two or three years of age, communication delays begin when the child is much younger.

Communication is a cornerstone of development in young children. When we think of communication, we often think of language; however, symbolic language (the understanding and use of words and rules for ordering words) is part of a process that begins at birth with the fundamental infant/caregiver relationship and early brain development (Prizant & Wetherby, l993).

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The Brain Connection

The fact that most children move from making random sounds to recognizable words in about eighteen months is astonishing. It is also, in part, a function of the brain development that takes place in the first two years of life. During this time, a child’s brain is nearly twice as active as that of an adult. Numerous synapsis or connections are forming and the brain is quite flexible and adaptable.

It is theorized that this brain development (dendritic branching) is critical to the development of communication and language. It is also thought that an enriched environment serves as a support or catalyst for brain development by increasing learning experiences and allowing the brain to make new connections (Hallett & Proctor, l996; Greenspan & Weider, l998; Greenough, Blact & Wallace, l993).

Typical Infant Development

During the first year of life, infants communicate three basic intentions: behavioral regulation, social interaction and joint attention (Bruner, l981). All three communicative intents are expressed through cries, grimaces, eye contact, body movement and gestures before words emerge (Wetherby, Cain, Yonclas & Walker, l988). This is known as presymbolic communication and is the foundation of the development of symbolic language.

Caretaker-Child Interaction and Communication Development

For optimal development of social and communication skills, the infant and the parent or primary caregiver must develop an increasing understanding of each others’ signals leading to smoother and more responsive communication. Brazelton and Cramer (1990) describe a useful model for looking at the characteristics of this interaction. Three early phases include:

1. Synchrony: the parent adapts to the infant’s rhythms and learns to read her cues,
2. Symmetry: the parent recognizes the infant’s tolerance for stimulation and her preferences,
3. Contingency: the infant and parent develop a growing awareness of the mutual nature of interactions.

There are some ways we can observe this communication process developing in young children particularly after eight months of age (Adamson, l996; Adamson & Backeman, 1984 & Wetherby, Warren, & Reichle, 1988). The indicators include gesturing to establish shared attention between the parent and infant to an object or activity, pointing by the infant/toddler to describe or obtain information, and the use of fantasy play by toddlers to practice new behaviors (Klinger and Dawson, 1996).

Parents and infants interact with each other on a variety of levels. The success of these interactions determines to a large degree the quality of communication that the infant will develop (Rosetti, 1996; Sparks, Oas & Erickson, l988).

Breakdowns in the Communication System

Infants are born with a predisposition to interact and usually parents/caregivers are predisposed to respond. However, if the infant has biological and/or environmental risks that cause difficulty understanding or using signals, the interaction patterns do not develop smoothly.

Greenspan and Weider (1998) describe a number of variables that can affect a child’s ability to communicate. Critical factors include the level (over or under) of sensitivity to touch, visual stimuli, movement, smell and taste. Other factors that enter into a communication exchange include how a child processes what he hears and sees and how he moves (motor abilities).

Children with disabilities, particularly those with pervasive developmental disorders such as autism, may have compromises in one or many of these systems that affect their ability to interact with others. For example, Field (l982), Dunst et al. (1990), and Prizant, Wetherby and Roberts (1993) found that when children experience communication delays, caregivers may be confused by the child’s signals and their interactions tend to be less frequent and more directive, resulting in frustration for the child and family.

Identification of Infants at Risk for Communication Disorders

There is a strong connection between early communication delays and emotional and behavioral disorders (Baker & Cantwell, l987; Beitchman, Hood, & Inglis, l990). Communication delays are also linked to later problems in school performance. These issues highlight the need for early identification of children with communication risks (Lockwood, 1994).

In the early months of an infant’s development, identification of communication risks is difficult. Assessments and screening instruments are not generally designed to identify delays prior to two years of age. Parents are often encouraged to “wait and see” when they voice concerns about communication in a child less than a year old. This delay can result in the loss of critical months of social-communication development (Rosetti, l996).

Fortunately, several new screening instruments for early identification of children who are at risk for communication disorders are being developed. These instruments are not designed to diagnose specific disabilities but to identify communication risk factors. This will enable caregivers to support at risk infants/toddlers with individualized communication strategies during critical developmental periods.

One promising screening instrument that is still in the field testing stage is the Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales Developmental Profile developed by Barry Prizant and Amy Wetherby. This screening includes both caregiver questionnaires and direct observation components.

Through very early identification of children at risk for communication disorders, parents and service providers will be better able to assist in communication development.

For more information, please contact: Gary Glasenapp
Early Childhood & Training Dept.,
Teaching Research Department,
Western Oregon University